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Canada
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Canada
Topics:
1)Canada, the
Beginning
1.1)The
Indians
1.2)Kanata, the
development
1.3)
Immigration
1.4) Waterways and the
development of the Canadian Pacific Railway
2)Government
2.1) The Federal or National
Government
2.1.1) The
Queen
2.1.2) Governor
General
2.1.3) The Queen´s Privy
Council
2.1.4) The House of Common
and the Cabinet
2.1.5) The
Senate
2.2) Provincial
Government
2.3) Territorial
Government
2.4.) Local
Government
2.5) The
Judiciary
3) Quebec: Conflict
between the English and
French
language
Canada has an area of nearly 6,000,000 square
miles, but less than one million square miles are effectively used. Canada is
made up from 10 provinces, from the small Prince Edward Island to Quebec. This
land is bounded by three oceans, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Arctic and
shares an frontier with the enormous lenght of almost 4,000 miles with the
Americans which is the unfortifiest border in the world.
1.)
Canada - the
Beginning
About 15000 years ago, there was a bridge of
land between, what we call now Siberia, and Alaska. (Bering Strait). Nomadic
people crossed this landbridge 25000 to 15000 years ago. Soon, they settled all
over America, these people were the first indians.
Some thousand years later the vikings crossed
the Atlantic ocean and landed at L ´Anse aux Meadows, lived there, but left
the land. Scientists found rests of stone - built houses, but for the vikings,
the land was to hard for living.
500 years later, the Europeans came to
“Canada”. They went fishing at the Grand Bank fishing grounds.
During summer, they stayed there, the stories they told lateron were the reason
for the first settlements of European people in North America.
1.1) The Indians
Naturally these settlements made some problems.
First the Indians were willing to share the land with the newcomers, but the
Europeans needed more and more land, so the Indians had to leave their
territories. The settlers traded with goods for land. The white people
didn´t understand the indians, but they didn´t kill them. The
“Canadian” indians didn´t have the same fate as the
“American” indians. They didn´t die because of their skin, but
because of their unstable immune system. They died of influenca and other
illnesses which were brought in by the settlers. This development killed many
indians.
There are three groups who call themselves the
First Nations. These are the Indians, the Inuit and the
Métis.
They want to distinguish themselves from the
Europeans because they came in the 16th century. The three groups were the
first. The Europeans did not discover the land, they invaded
it.
Today there are six main cultures, some of them
no longer exist.
1.) The Woodland Indians
2.) The Iroquains
3.) The Plain Indians
4.) The Plateau Indians
5.) The Northwest Coastal
Indians
6.) The Subarctic Indians
1.2) Kanata
In
1497 John Cabot claims the New World territory
for England. He probably landed in Newfoundland. Only 40 years later on an
voyage to Canada in
1534, Jacques Cartier gave Canada the
name.
Kanata means in Huron Indian - a settlement.
Cartier meant it referred to the whole land he had discovered. He sailed up St.
Lawrence River and claimed this area for France. The place he claimed for France
is part of the present - day Quebec.
He established the first permanent European
settlement near the St. Lawrence River. And in
1608 French explorer Samuel de Champlain
founded Quebec city. The life was very hard, the Indians unfriendly and
adventurers came to find gold. But they made their money with another good of
Canada. They made beaver hats who became very modern in Europe. Soon in
1660 there were over 3000 merchants, farmers,
soldiers, living at the Banks of St. Lawrence River. In
1663 the French crown takes control of the
colony of Canada.
Some adventurers found, that it would be better
to build a trading company to control everything. They tried to interest the
French people for this idea but they didn´t want to hear anything about
that. So they began to talk with English king Charles II and his brother prince
Rupert Count Palatinate of the Rhine, Duke of BAVARIA. They persuaded a group of
English salesman who should pay for the idea. In
1668 two adventurers sailed to Canada and built
the Hudson´s Bay Company which was really established in 1670 with the
English Royal Charter.It said that they would get control over all lands drained
by rivers which flow into Hudson Bay. The first president of the Hudson´s
Bay company was Prince Rupert.
It was highly succesful. Until today the
Hudson´s Bay company is one of the most important trading companies in
Canada. They began as a fur trading business which exchanged European goods for
the furs of the Indians. This business sent the people further and further
inland so the Hudson´s Bay company eventually became responsible for the
settlement of western Canada. After 327 years of trading, the company has become
smaller but for the Canadians it is still a honour and an opportunity to work
for the company. The British seemed to rule the land, but the French people were
the ones who worked and transported the goods. Their work was even harder than
those of the British.
But by this time the British settled in other
regions.
1713 the Hudson bay, Newfoundland and mainland
Nova Scotia became British because of the treaty of Utrecht. In the
18th century they began to build the
settlements along the Atlantic coast. They built Halifax, the capital of Nova
Scotia.
Soon the French, who were isolated in Quebec
began to feel overpowered by the British. When the British began to explore the
country the conflict grew.In
1755 the French and Indian war began. There was
an open conflict between France and Britain for the control of North
America.
The Seven years War came to Canada. In
1759 the British captured Quebec city. and
defeatet the French at the battle of the plains of Abraham. This
development led
1763 to the Treaty of Paris, which said that
Quebec would become British.The next hundred years there was very little change
in Canada, the French became more and more overpowered by the
British.
But the 65.000 French inhabitants kept up
fighting for their tradition and this led to the
Quebec act in 1774. Britain guaranteed the
French civil laws and religious freedom. In Quebec most people were Roman
Catholics, in contrast the others were mostly protestants.
After the American war of independence in
1776 many English speakin people came to Canada
and settled in Upper Canada which is now Ontario. The French remained in Lower
Canada, now Quebec.
In 1812 American troops fail to invade British
North America
After rebellions by French settlers, the two
colonies became the United provinces of Canada in 1840
English became the official
language.
In 1867, Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
became the Dominion of Canada, this law is called the British North America
Act.
The provinces of Manitoba, Alberta and
Saskatchewan were formed between 1870 and 1905.
The remaining land became the North West
territories.
In 1871 B.C. joined The dominion of Canada,
1873 Prince Edward Island joined, and Yukon was established in 1898.
Newfoundland became Canada´s 10th province in 1949.
1939 Canada receives formal independence from
Britain. 10 years later Canada becomes a founding member of the
NATO.
And finally in 1965 Canada adopts the Maple
leaf flag.
1.3. Immigration
Canada is a land of immigrants. All Canadians
are either descendants of immigrants or immigrants themselves.
Early immigration came mainly from France and
Britain.
By the first decade of the 20th century, an
important source of immigration was continental Europe, like
Germany.
After the WWII another mass of immigrants came
to Canada, they saw Canada as a refugee of wartorn Europe.
During the 1960ies when there was a boom in
the economy, immigration reached a high.(222.876)
This led to an immigration policy in 1967. The
new system introduced was based on points which were given for language skills,
education, technical abilities, and abilities to create jobs in
Canada.
Canada asks itself who many immigrants should
be allowed in the 21st century. Furthermore the problem was established what
impact the non - white immigrants will have on the terms of social
problems.
The development of immigration is similar to
the waves of immigrants in America.
The first Canadians didn´t come with the
Mayflower but on the same way and regarded themseves as the founding people.
These groups were the British and the French. Like the Americans they regarded
the later arriving people as minorities and discriminated them in some way
although this development was not as grave as in America.
From 1880 on Jews who were fleeing from
Progroms in Europe came to Canada. The majority came from Russia, Poland, others
from Roumania.
The assimilation was easier than in America.
The Jewish Colonization Association helped the people to become farmer. The
problem was, that the jewish didn´t know hardly anything about farming. For
this reason they gave it up after a few years. The first Jewish Member of
Parliament was Henry Nathan, who was elected to represent Victoria in British
Columbia after entering in the Confederation, without any doubts, an important
and new period in the development of the Jewish and British
Columbia.
With this, so called wave, Swedish, Danish,
German settlers came to Canada .
The construction of the Canadian Pacific
Railway led to an influx of immigrants which began with the construction in the
last 20 years of the former century.
The first Chinese people came to Canada when
the gold rush began. The first came in 1858 but many people had already given up
in 1866. Like in America they only tried to make money and then they returned to
China. But in 1885 it ended for the Chinese, not with a tremendous effort but
with the experience of brutally hard work.
The next “wave” of immigration
happened after World War I. It is astonishing that the majority of immigrants
came from China. This development led to the Chinese Immigration Act. During
the next 18 years only 15 merchants, clergymen and students were allowed to
enter.
Many Canadian soldiers came home to Canada with
brides.
From 1920 to 1929 many people from wartorn and
unstable countries came to Canada.
Pre WWII immigration was significant Jewish
dominated. From Adolf Hitlers talk of a “master race” on , many Jews
fled as refugees to Canada, from 1930 on to 1939 there was a constant flow of
Jews to Canada, reaching a high slightly before the beginning of
WWII.
The Jews coming to Canada, were mostly rich and
famous. Scientists, educators, engineers and industrialists, came to
Canada
After WWII, the Post - war immigration took
place.
Soon the stream of “displaced
persons” came to a flow.
It was remarkable that many of those persons
were people with former occupied positions of prominence. They were business
leaders and industrialists, educators and scientists.
The main stream of immigrants came from Britain
and generally from Central Europe.
The Hungarian revolt in 1956/57 led to an
dramatic uprise of Hungarian refugees. 35000 immigrant arrived.
1.4 The Railway and the Waterways -
important factors in the development of Canada.
Canada´s first prime minister John A.
MacDonald had the dream to bind all the nations together. When, in 1871 British
Columbia entered the Confederation, the citizens weren´t that patriotic.
They felt they should belong to the south.
So John A. MacDonald made the building of a
railway from the Atlantic to the Pacific his top priority. He felt that only by
these measures, Canada would be safe from all influences from the United
States.
It was a very hard work through the
1870´s, the last spike was driven in the mountains of British Columbia.
→Canadian
Pacific Rail Road, completed on November 7th 1885 Between 1880 and 1885, 3,040
kilometres of tracks were added to the 1,100 kilometres still
built.
The waterways were an important factor in the
industrialisation of Canada.
Since the 17th century the St. Lawrence Seaway
system has been the major feature in the North American Transportation system.
It includes the five Great Lakes, Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie and Ontario,
which were all drained to the Atlantic ocean by the St. Lawrence river. The
total lenght of this system is nearly 3,000 kilometres.
Canadas longest river is the Mc Kenzie river,
with a lenght of nearly 4,000 kilometres from the source in the Rocky Mountains
to the Arctic Ocean.
2.)
Government
The British North America Act in 1867 provided
for the establishment and functioning of political institutions at three levels
of representative government in the Canadian Federation
1.)The National or Federal
Government
2.)The provincial Government
3.)The local or municipial
Government
2.1)The Federal or National
Government
This government is similiar to the British
parliamentary system, Canada´s institutions consist at the federal or
national level of three branches, the executive, the legislative and the
judicial. There is no separation of branches - “checks and balances”
in Canada.
The Crown is the unifying symbol of these
branches.
The government consist of “The Queen, an
Upper House (Senat) and the House of Commons.
2.1.1)The Queen
Until today Her Majesty Queen Elisabeth II. is
Queen of Canada symbolizing the influence of the British Government system on
the Canadian Government.
But her power is limited, in fact reserved to
such occasions like a royal visit or the periodic appointment of her personal
representative on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada.
2.1.2.)The Governor
General
is appointed by the Queen and the legal
representative of Her Majesty for an unfixed term of five years. Under new
Letters Patent established on the first of October 1947, he got the power to
execute, on the advice of the Queen´s Privy Council, all royal powers and
executive authorities of the Crown in relation to Canada. He receives no
instructions from Westminster, doesn´t make reports for them, but exercises
formal authority as summoning, poroguing and dissolving parliament and assenting
to Bills in Queen´s name. Since
1952 Canadians are Governors General of
Canada.
2.1.3.)The Queen´s Privy
Council
Consists of about 100 members, appointed for
life time by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime
Minister.
The Council consists chiefly of present and
former Ministers of the Crown, but occasionally membership is conferred on
former speakers of the Common and the Senate. the Council does not meet as
functioning body and the constitutional responsibilities as adviser to the
Crown are performed exclusively by a select committee, composed of the
Ministers, who actually constitute the Cabinet of the Day.
2.1.4.)The House of Common and the
Cabinet
A new House of Common is chosen in a general
election usually held at any time within five years after the last election. A
normal dissolution before the election follows. The dissolution is pronounced
by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister.
If necessary (in Canada only in 1926 and 1963)
a general election may be called when a governmental passagge of a vote of want
of confidence is defeatet by the House in the government of the
day.
The House of Common consists of 295 members
from different parties.
The franchise, that is the right to vote
is given to all citizens (Canadian citizens or British subjects), male or
female, of the age of 21, or to people who have lived in Canada for over 12
months conferring to the polling day, with certain exeption, for example, people
who have lived in a penal institution or a mental hospital. Now there is
something different. The “active franchise” is for all citizens and
British subjects of the age of 18.
The leader of the party which has won the
largest number of seats in The House of Common is normally asked by the Governor
General to work as the representative of the Queen and to form the
Parliament.
This leader becomes the Prime Minister.
Normally he chooses members of the House of Commons, but it is also possible to
choose other people.
That person has to pass through a by - election
to secure his seat in the house.
The Cabinet and the House of Commons are the
executive powers in Canada.
The Cabinet is responsible for determining all
important policies of government and securing the passage of such legislation,
financial measures and administrative provisions.
The members of the Cabinet are also often
called Ministers of the Crown.
They represent all regions of the country, and
their religious, cultural and social interests.
The references to the executive power, such as
the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, the composition and all requirements are not
written down in the BNA Act, but part of the unwritten, but nonetheless
cherished CONVENTIONAL CONSTITUTION.
The choice off the Canadian citizen
doesn´t only say who should form the Parliament, but also designates who
becomes the Official Opposition.
The Ministers of the Crown carry out the
political responsibilities of their respective departments but the federal
service forms the staffs of 20 departments and of various boards, commissions n
coporations, bureaus and so on.
The Deputy Minister is the permanent head of
the day to day adminstration of a department.
2.1.5.)The Senate
The Senate or Upper House shares the
responsibility and the enactment of the federal legislation with the House of
Commons.
Bills have to pass both houses before they are
signed up by the Governors General.
The influence of the Senate is less than that
of the House of Commons in which most public bills are
introduced.
But the Senate has the power to perform a
valuable service to the nation in amending and delaying the passage of measures
that might result from sudden shifts in public oppinion or party
strenght.
Senators are appointed by the Governors General
on the nomination, by constitutional usage, of the Prime
Minister
In 1965 life appointment was reduced by
legislation, providing the retirement of Senators by reaching the age of 75
years.
The Senate consists of 104 members, of all
regions and territories of Canada.
2.2)Provincial
Government
The Provincial Government is part of the
Federal Government and therefor represented by a Lieutnant Governor, who is
appointed by the Governors General for a term of five years. Although he works
for the Federal Government, his powers are exactly the same as those of the
Governors General but only in the Provincial Government.The legislative
Assembly is elected for a term of five years and only for Quebec a Legislative
Council of 24 members appointed for life by the Lieutnant Governor in
Council.
The franchise is granted to every adult of the
age of 21 although in Quebec and Saskatchewan at the age of 18 and in Alberta,
British Columbia and Newfoundland the age is 19.
The legislative powers of the Provincial
Government are defined under Section 92 in the BNA - act.
Each of the 10 provinces has a different
constitution. The Province Governor represents the Crown and is appointed by the
Governor General. He follows the advise of the Prime Minister.
2.3)Territorial
Government:
The sparsely populated regions in Canada have a
different system of government a local self - government.
For example the local self - government of the
Yukon territory is represented by a Commissioner who is resident in Ottawa, and
who is appointed by the Federal Government and a locally - elected Legislative
Council of seven members, meeting at Whitestone.
The Commissioner is assisted by a Council of 12
members of whom seven are elected.
The Council meets once a year in the
territories and at least once each year at Ottawa, which is the seat of the
government.
The Administration of Yukon, Indian and Eskimo
affairs and of the resources of the territories, except hunting is the
responsibility of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern
development.
2.4Local Government:
The smallest of all governments. The Local
Government is divided into municipial levels, which again are divided into
ten different systems.
The municipalities, are also known as Towns,
townships, rural municipalities. Governments corporations in Montreal, Toronto
and Winnipeg are organized to provide certain services to a number of area
municipalities.
Municipalities have a provincial government and
have different powers and responsibilities according to their
classification.
The head of a municipality is elected and my
be called mayor, reeve or overseer. The responsibilities are mostly relied to
keep up the citizens day - life his well - being and the
protection.
2.5)The Judiciary:
It is the third element of government and it
has to interpret and administer the law. Each province has an magistrate´s
court and is furthermore divised into supreme or county courts.
In the provinces all judges except the police
magistrates and the judges of the courts of probate in N. S and N. B. are
appointed by the Governors General.
Their salaries allowances and pensions are paid
by the Parliament of Canada. Pension: 75 years.
The Supreme Court and the Exchequer Court were
established in 1875 under the BNA - act. The Chief Justice and the eight puisne
judges of the Supreme Court and four puisne judges of the Exchequer Courts are
appointed by the Governor General in Council.
They hold office as long as they show good
behaviour, but are removable when it is wanted by the Governor General on advise
of the senate and the House of Commons. Pension : 75 years. The Supreme Court is
in Ottawa and exercises general jurisdiction throughout the country. It answers
the Question of the Governor General
The Exchequer Court also sits at Ottawa and at
other centres as necessary.
The newest Governor General in Council is
Roméro LeBlanc.
The Prime Minister is Jean
Crétien.
The last elections were 1995, the new
government is on power since the 25th of January 1996.
There are different parties in
Canada
1.) The liberal Party
2.) The Reform Party
3.) The New Democratic Party
4.) The Progressive - Conservative
Party
5.) The Bloque Quebecois
3.)
Quebec: Conflict between the
English and French speaking population
The reasons for this long - lasting conflict in
Canada can be found in the history. The French population always had the feeling
of being overpowered by the British citizens. The roots of this conflict lie
surely in the battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759 which led to the Treaty of
Paris. This treaty said that Quebec would become British.
The development in our century is even more
radical and diverse.
Canadian newspaper often state the possibility
of breaking - up. Modern Canada was founded by the French and the English. The
French came first, but the English took control.
Before the Dominion of Canada was founded in
1867 many rebelions of French had to be put down.
Since this time the French tried to preserve
their culture and language in an English dominated land.
The rest of Canada respects Quebec ´s
demands but is not willing to give them more powers than they
have.
Quebecs language laws have caused some
bitterness.
In
1989 Quebec insisted that business signs appear
in French only in the province.
But in accordance withe The Official Languages
Act of 1969 all the other nine provinces also had to become bilingual although
other languages, like German and Ukrainian were spoken more widely in these
provinces.
Canadas seven million Francophones represent
28% of the population. But only in New Brunswick the partnership of English and
French is successful.
In Manitoba five percent of the population
speak French, but all pupils have to learn completely French from the
Kindergarten to the University.
The Francophones have their own festivals and
broadcasting stations.
In connection with the Problem of Quebec it is
necessary to mention a man who dealt effectively with the kidnappers of a
British diplomat and the Minister of Quebec who got killed by the kidnappers in
1970. Pierre Trudeau spoke with the kidnappers
who were from the Quebec Liberation Front, a party wanting Quebec to be
seperated from the rest. Pierre Trudeau became Minister of Justice in 1967 and
in 1968 Canada´s 15th Prime Minister. Trudeau believed in a United Canada.
He spoke English and French, a fact which made him popular. He was responsible
for the Official Language Act in 1969 which gave both languages an equal
status.
In
1980 a referendum asking Quebec people wether
they wish to partially seperate from Canada is defeated.
In 1992 the next referendum followed. The
result was nearly fifty - fifty. Today more than 60% of the Quebeckers believe
that Quebec becomes a seperate province by the end of the
decade.
Quebec is one of the wealthiest provinces and
the largest. But there are also some grave economic problems to solve. The
Parties couldn´tsolve them, so the seperatists party Bloc Quebequois
get´s more and more powerful. Some Quebeckers are confident that they can
succeed alone.
The problem is, that other colonies could
follow. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick think that they could benefit from
becoming part of the U.S.A.
Alberta and British Columbia think about this
too, but both Provinces are important for the economy of Canada, but on the
other side they have important trade and cultural relations to the
U.S.
But the majority of Canadians does´nt want
to become part of another country.
It seems that the problem goes further. The
Métis, the Eskimos, the minorities watch with interest what is going on
in Quebec. They will not allow special conditions for Quebec if they don´t
get those rights too.
A group of the Federal Commitee drives
throughout Canada, asking the people what they want. The results were showed at
the referendum in 1992.
Literature:
Canada, One Hundred, 1867 - 1967, Handbook and
Library Division, Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Queen´s Printer, Ottawa,
Canada 1967
Canada - Perspectives. Ernst Klett Verlag GmbH.
u. Co. KG. Stuttgart 1989
Colourful Canada. Roger Burford Mason.
Cornelsen Verlaf Berlin, 1992
Facsimile from the Canadian Department of
Foreign Affairs and International Trade.
The Canadian Encyclopedia Plus. Mc Clelland
& Stewart Inc. 1995
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