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| Conflict in Ireland
Conflict in Ireland
CONFLICT IN IRELAND
The people of Northern Ireland disagree about the future of Ireland. One
side wants to remain part of the UK. They are called Unionists. Hardline
Unionists are also known as Loyalists. Most of the Unionists are also
Protestants.
The other side want Northern Ireland to join the South and become part of
the Irish Republic. They are called Nationalists. Hardline Nationalists are also
known as Republicans. They are mostly Catholics.
The two communities in Northern Ireland are represented by a large number
of different organisations. Here is a list of the main organisations for the
Nationalist and Unionist communities:
Nationalist/Catholic
SDLP – Social Democratic and Labour Party:
Founded in 1970, the SDLP is supported almost entirely by Catholics. It
wants Irish unity but is fiercely opposed to the violence of the IRA. The SDLP
is the main voice of peaceful Nationalism in Northern Ireland.
Sinn Féin:
This political party backs the tradition of revolutionary violence and the
work of the IRA. It is supported by Catholics in working–class
areas.
IRA – Irish Republican Army:
Originally established in 1919, this organisation has used force to oppose
the British presence in Ireland. IRA members have killed large numbers of
British soldiers and Northern Ireland police officers. IRA bombs have also
killed civilians in both Northern Ireland and mainland Britain. The IRA is
illegal in both the UK and the Republic of Ireland.
Unionist/Protestant
UUP – Ulster Unionist Party:
The Ulster Unionist Party was established in the late 19th
century to defend the interests of northern Protestants. The UUP ruled Northern
Ireland between 1920 and 1971.
DUP – The Democratic Unionist Party:
The second most powerful Unionist party was founded in 1971 by Ian Paisley.
It has taken a tough and uncompromising view and has called for the destruction
of the IRA.
The Orange Order:
In 1795 the Orange Order was established to help to protect Protestants.
Today it is the largest Protestant organisation in northern Ireland. It is named
after 17th-century Protestant king, William of Orange. It organises
regular marches to celebrate the traditions of the Protestant
community.
UDA/UVF – The Ulster Defence Association/The Ulster Volunteer
Force:
These two groups are the main loyalist paramilitary groups. They were
established in the early 1970s to fight the IRA. They are both illegal. Both
groups have been responsible for the murder of innocent Catholics.
English conquest and colonisation
1500-1790
Rebellions and plantations: 1500-1690
Tudor expeditions
1541 Henry VIII changed his title from “Lord” to “King of
Ireland” and told the Irish chieftains that they must all obey his orders.
His children, Edward VI and Elizabeth I, began introducing Protestant bishops,
bibles and prayer books. In Elizabeth’s reign, the provinces of Ulster and
Munster rose in rebellion. 1595 Hugh O’Neill, The Earl of Tyrone, led the
people of Ulster in a war against English rule. But the English forces got the
upper hand and O’Neill and his Spanish allies were defeated at the Battle
of Kinsale in 1601.
The Protestant plantations
The English rulers decided that military force alone was not enough to gain
control in Ireland. Land was still the main source of power. So the English
decided to “plant” colonies of loyal Protestants and give land to
them.
Some of the settlers were supporters of the Church of England, known as
Anglicans. Others were Scottish Protestants, sometimes known as Presbyterians or
Dissenters.
Catholic Rebellion
In 1641 Catholics took part in a great rebellion against the new settlers.
Large numbers of Protestants were killed and the rebellion continued until the
arrival of the English leader, Oliver Cromwell, in 1649. Cromwell slaughtered
the Catholic inhabitants of two towns, Drogheda and Wexford. Afterwards he
confiscated the lands of the Catholic rebels and handed it out to his
followers.
The Ulster Plantation: a turning point
Unlike earlier invaders, these new settlers and their descendants kept
apart from the Gaelic people. They retained their Protestant religion and their
English language.
After the Plantation there were two separate hostile
“communities” in Ulster: the descendants of the Protestant British
settlers and the native Irish Catholics. From the beginning, their differences
were not just about religion but also about political and economic power. As
Protestant settlers increased their hold on land and power, so the Gaelic
Catholics lost it.
The Protestant takeover 1690-1770
When Catholic James II became king in 1685, the Protestants began to fear
that their land – and their power – would be given back to the
Catholics. Even when James was overthrown by Protestants in 1688, their position
was not safe. James II planned to use Ireland as a base to invade England to
regain his throne.
The Battle of the Boyne: a turning point
On 12 July 1690 the new Protestant king, William of Orange, followed James
to Ireland and defeated him at the Battle of the Boyne. Ulster Protestants still
celebrate the Battle of the Boyne today with an “Orange march” and
William of Orange remains one of their heroes.
The Penal Laws
Between 1697 and 1727 the Irish Parliament passed special laws known as the
Penal Laws. These remained in force until the end of 18th century.
Because of the Penal Laws the Dissenters were prevented from holding public
offices or sitting on town councils unless they agreed to worship in an Anglican
church.
Throughout the 18th century the Anglican ruling class controlled
everything that mattered in Ireland.
The fight for Irish Independence
The Fenian tradition
In 1858 two secret organisations were set up to plan for a revolution in
Ireland: they were called the Fenian Brotherhood and the Irish Republican
Brotherhood (IRB). A Fenian rebellion in 1867 was easily suppressed by the
British forces. After 1867 the Fenians realised there was little support for
armed uprisings and instead began to help poor farmers in their fight against
harsh landlords.
The Rise of Sinn Féin
In 1905 a new political party was set up, called Sinn Féin (meaning
“Ourselves Alone”). It was led by Arthur Griffith. He wanted Ireland
to become independent but he did not plan to achieve this by force. Instead he
suggested that the Irish MPs should simply “opt out” of the British
parliament and set up their own government in Dublin.
The rise of the parliamentary Nationalists 1820-1914
Daniel O’Connell wins support
O’Connell was responsible for important developments:
With thousands of Irish voters supporting him, O’Connell was able to
force the British government to change the law banning Catholic MPs in 1829.
O’Connell’s supporters could now go on to build up a party of Irish
Nationalist MPs in the British House of Commons. This was important if they were
to change the Act of Union which had abolished the old Irish Parliament in
1800.
Parnell and the campaign for Home Rule
1885 Charles Stewart Parnell built up an Irish Nationalist Party.
Nationalist MPs were now a big enough group to make the two British parties, the
Liberals and the Conservatives, take notice of their demands.
In 1886, the leaders of the Liberal Party agreed to help Parnell and the
Nationalists in their attempt to set up an Irish Parliament. They brought a
“Home Rule for Ireland” Bill before the House of Commons. This was
defeated twice – in 1886 and again in 1893.
John Redmond comes close to victory
Parnell’s campaign for an Irish parliament was carried on after 1900
by a new leader, John Redmond. In 1912 the Liberals brought a third Home Rule
bill before the House of Commons. This time the bill was passed. 1914 Irish
people were set to have their own parliament again in Dublin.
The rise of Unionist opposition 1790-1914
The Ulster Unionist Party
Protestants now decided the time had come to put a stop to all ideas of an
independent Irish parliament. So they set up their own political party to fight
to keep Britain and Ireland united. This was the “Ulster Unionist
Party”.
Ulster Protestants also set up their own private army, the Ulster
Volunteers.
The Irish Revolution 1914-1921
By 1914 there were serious problems in Ireland:
- The parliamentary Nationalists had been promised Home Rule by autumn 1914
but the Unionists were determined to stop Ulster being ruled by an all Ireland
parliament.
- Both sides had strong support: the Nationalist Party among Ireland’s
Catholic voters, the Unionists among the Protestants of Ulster.
- Both sides had private armies. The Unionists had recruited 100 000 Ulster
Volunteers in 1912 to fight against Home Rule. In 1913 the Nationalist Party,
with the help of a group of Fenians, formed a rival army to fight for Home Rule.
They were called the Irish Volunteers.
The Easter Rising
In 1916 a small group of Fenians organised a rebellion in Dublin on Easter
Monday. Their leader was Patrick Pearse. They took over the General Post Office
and proclaimed Ireland an independent Republic. After a week of violence Pearse
surrendered. The British army, under General Maxwell, executed fifteen of the
leaders without a proper trial.
The Triumph of Sinn Féin 1918
Throughout Britain and Ireland a general election was held. Irish voters
had a choice of three different futures for Ireland:
- Home Rule, but as part of the British Empire (Redmond and the Nationalist
Party).
- British rule for Ireland (Unionists).
- Complete independence (Sinn Féin and the Revolutionary
Nationalists).
The overall winners were Sinn Féin. The new
Sinn Féin MPs refused to go to London. Instead they declared Ireland an
independent Republic and set up their own parliament, the Dáil, in
Dublin. They also set up a government, police and law courts.
The Irish Volunteers were reorganised and renamed “The Irish
Republican Army” (IRA), under the leadership of Michael Collins.
The war of Irish Independence 1919-1921
In 1920 the IRA fought against British forces in Ireland.
The British government decided that the only solution was to divide Ireland
into two parts:
The North
In 1920 the six most Protestant counties of Ulster were given their own
parliament and their own government. This new government of Northern Ireland
became known as Stormont. The new state was to stay part of the UK.
The South
The 26 counties of southern Ireland became known as the Irish Free State.
This was an independent country but initially it remained part of the British
Commonwealth.
Ireland divided
Orangemen rule the North
Although Protestant Unionists were in the majority, there were still
thousands of Catholic Nationalists living there. Many refused to accept the
split. Between July 1920 and July 1922 there was fierce fighting in Belfast and
453 people were killed.
Northern Ireland had been given its own parliament. Since the Protestants
were in the majority, they had control of the Stormont Parliament and the
government.
Catholics found it difficult to get good jobs and decent council houses.
They also felt they were treated unfairly by the police. The Northern Ireland
government introduced new laws and a new part-time police force as a defence
against the IRA.
Partition: the effects in the North
Hopes of peaceful change 1950-1968
Between 1956 and 1962 the IRA started a new campaign of violence in the
North. It failed mainly. Many IRA leaders were imprisoned.
The North explodes 1968-1972
In 1967 a group of young Catholics got together and set up a Civil Rights
Association. From October 1968, they organised a series of protest marches.
These marches ended in violence and bloodshed between Catholics and Protestants.
Civil Rights marchers were opposed by followers of the Protestant preacher, Ian
Paisley.
By August 1969 fighting between Catholics and Protestant police was out of
control. The British government stepped in and sent British troops to restore
order.
Return of the IRA and UVF
In 1956-1962 the IRA were back and now controlled the Catholic streets of
these cities. This time there was a new group of young IRA men calling
themselves “The Provisional” IRA. The Provisionals had broken away
from the old “Official” IRA in 1969-1970.
On the other side of the barricades were the Protestant paramilitaries, the
Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and the Ulster Defence Association (UDA). They were
determined to fight to keep Ulster British.
Bloody Sunday and Direct rule 1972
In 1970 a group of Catholic Nationalists set up the Social Democratic
Labour Party (SDLP) to campaign for peaceful change. The SDLP became the largest
Nationalist party but they were not able to stop the violence.
On 30th January 1972 thirteen unarmed people were shot dead by
the British army during a Civil Rights march in Londonderry. This day is called
“Bloody Sunday”.
So the British government suspended the Northern Ireland government and
parliament and began to rule the province direct from Britain.
Britain and Ireland since 1972
Power-sharing
In 1974 the British tried to set up a new system of government in which
power would be shared between Protestants and Catholics (Sunningdale Agreement).
This system failed because the Protestants opposed it.
Changes in the police and security forces
When British troops were first sent to Ulster in 1969 they were given
complete control of all peace-keeping operations and the Royal Ulster
Constabulary. In 1977 they handed back control to the RUC.
The Nationalist reaction since 1972
The Parliamentary Nationalists
The SDLP, led by John Hume, are the modern Parliamentary Nationalists. Like
O’Connell in the 19th century, they want to solve
Ireland’s problems by peaceful negotiation.
The Revolutionary Nationalists – The IRA
The IRA is the main modern example of Revolutionary Nationalism. Since the
early 1970s it has planted bombs in Northern Ireland and in mainland Britain
which have killed and injured ordinary civilians, including children. At times
the IRA has changed tactics and has put more emphasis on attacking the police,
the army and leading British figures. Lord Mountbatten, the Queen’s uncle,
was murdered in 1979. In 1984 a bomb planted in a Brighton hotel nearly killed
the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, and other government members.
Sinn Féin
In the 1980s some of the younger IRA men, led by Gerry Adams, brought
forward a new idea. Using the old name Sinn Féin, they decided to built
up a new political party for Revolutionary Nationalists in Ireland.
In the election of 1983 Adams was elected as British MP for West
Belfast.
The Sinn Féin attempt to become the voice of the Nationalist
community ultimately failed. Adams himself lost his seat as MP to an SDLP
politician in 1992.
With widespread criticism of IRA activities, Gerry Adams began to explore a
new policy. He decided to encourage IRA/Sinn Féin to end the armed
struggle and use peaceful methods. In 1988 Adams began talks with John Hume, the
SDLP leader. Adams persuaded the IRA to declare a cease-fire in 1994 and again
in 1997. Ten years after the start of the Hume-Adams talks both men supported
the 1998 Good Friday Agreement which set up a power-sharing assembly in Northern
Ireland.
The Unionist reaction since 1972
In 1971, a new party called the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) was set up, led
by Ian Paisley. Paisley was well known for his fiercely anti-Catholic,
anti-Nationalist and anti-British government views.
Some extreme Unionists set up Protestant private armies: the Ulster Defence
Association (UDA) and the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). These organisations
specialised in “sectarian” murders: the killing of innocent
Catholics in retaliation for IRA attacks on Protestant policemen and part-time
soldiers.
No power-sharing
Since 1972, Unionists have opposed all moves to involve Nationalists in the
government of Ulster. In 1974 they wrecked the “Power-sharing”
system by means of a general strike of all Protestant workers.
Cease-fire and beyond
In 1993 there was an agreement between Adams and Hume. The two men informed
Dublin that there was a possibility of the IRA ceasing its violence. On 31
August the IRA announced that there would be a cease-fire. Shortly afterwards
the loyalist paramilitaries also declared a cease-fire.
The British government wanted the IRA began to hand over weapon. The IRA
refused. In February 1996 the IRA ended the cease-fire, and killed two people in
London. In 1997 Tony Blair became British Prime Minister, and his new Labour
government tried to get peace talks going. The IRA declared a new cease-fire in
July 1997, and Sinn Féin was allowed to join the peace talks.
Negotiations continued throughout late 1997 and early 1998. On 10 April 1998,
Good Friday, a peace deal was agreed. Under the Good Friday Agreement a new
power-sharing assembly was given day-to-day control over Northern
Ireland.
Causes of the conflict
- Religion
The divide between
Catholics and Protestants goes back a long way to the 16th and
17th centuries. It was then that British rulers first brought the
Protestant church and Protestant settlers to Ireland.
The overwhelming majority of Northern Protestants are also Unionists.
Nearly all Nationalists in northern Ireland are also Catholics.
By itself the religious difference cannot explain the conflict in Ireland.
The divisions in the north of Ireland are caused by the two communities having a
different sense of identity.
Some religious differences between Catholics and Protestants
Catholic
The leader of the Catholic Church is the Pope. He represents Christ on
Earth.
Services often contain elaborate ritual. Priests have special
powers.
Priests must not marry. Monks and nuns do not marry.
Special veneration is given to the Virgin Mary and other saints.
Protestant
The Pope is wrong when he claims to represent Christ. His leadership is
rejected.
Services are simpler. Ministers do not have supernatural powers.
Ministers can marry. Marriage is better than a monastic way of
life.
Little attention is given to saints. The Bible is given special
veneration.
- Power
politics
Nationalism
Nationalists want a united Ireland. There are two traditions of Irish
Nationalism. The parliamentary Nationalists, like the SDLP, think the only way
to get a united Ireland is by peaceful negotiation. The traditional
revolutionary republican, like the IRA, fight against British rule using the
bomb and bullet.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin and John
Hume of the SDLP met to work out a common approach. Adams agreed to work towards
a peaceful approach to politics. He persuaded the IRA to change, and in 1994 and
1997 the IRA declared cease-fires. The 1997 cease-fire was followed by peace
talks which were attended by both Sinn Féin and the SDLP. Both
Nationalist parties agreed to support the Good Friday Agreement in
1998.
Unionism
Unionists are determined to stop North and South becoming united. Some,
like the politicians of the Ulster Unionist Party and the Democratic Unionist
Party, use parliamentary politics to protect the Union with Britain. Others,
including members of the UDA and the UVF, have used violence against Catholics
in an attempt to defeat the IRA. The Protestant paramilitaries have carried out
campaigns of sectarian murder, during which innocent Catholics have been killed
as a warning to the IRA. Occasionally the line between the Parliamentary
Unionists and the use of paramilitary force becomes blurred.
- Economics
The land question
In the 17th century the government started taking land from the
native Irish (who were Catholics) and giving it to Scottish and English settlers
(who were loyal Protestants).
After the rebellions in 1641 and 1690 more land was confiscated from
Catholic landowners and settled in the same way. Finally in 1704 the Irish
Parliament (which was controlled by Protestant landowners) passed a law
forbidding Catholics to buy any more land. By 1703 over 80% of the land was
owned by Protestants.
The Great Famine
Among the most difficult phases for the Irish were periods of starvation,
e.g. “The Great Hunger” 1845 to 1849, where the potato crop was
destroyed by a disease. During the Great Hunger about one third of
Ireland’s population starved or emigrated to the USA, Canada and
Britain.
- Social
life
Separate schools
Today the two communities are not only divided by religion and politics,
they also go to separate schools.
The idea of separate schools has a long history. In 1700 after their
victory at the Battle of the Boyne, Protestants passed a series of “Penal
Laws” against Catholics. One of these banned Catholic teachers.
For over 100 years the only legal schools were those run by the Protestant
churches. Catholics ran illegal “hedge” schools for their
children.
Separate housing
In the cities of Belfast and Derry, most Catholics and Protestants live in
separate areas. In Derry this goes back to the time of the Protestant
Plantations in the early 17th century. Separate areas in Belfast grew
up in the early 19th century when the growing shipbuilding and linen
industries attracted many Catholic workers.
Books of my special topic Northern
Ireland
The twelfth day of July (Kevin and
Sadie)
Author: Joan Lingard
Date: 1970
Penguin Books
The story takes place in Belfast. It is about the conflict between Catholic
(Kevin and Brede) and Protestant (Tommy and Sadie) children. One day two
Catholic children spread the words DOWN WITH KING BILLY across the gable wall of
a Protestant house. To take revenge the Protestant children paint GOD BLESS KING
BILLY on a wall. This fight goes on and in the night of the eleventh of July all
Protestant children stand on their side of the street, which parts the Catholic
from the Protestant area, and all Catholic children stand on the other side.
They begin to throw stones at each other. But suddenly a Catholic girl is hurt
badly. When they realise how stupid they have been, they stop and Sadie and
Tommy run to her and help her. So the Protestant and Catholic children get to
know each other and some of them become friends.
Across the barricades (Kevin and
Sadie)
Author: Joan Lingard
Date: 1972
Penguin Books
The story takes place in Belfast. Sadie, a Protestant girl, falls in love
with Kevin, a Catholic boy. Sadie’s mother doesn’t want her to meet
a Catholic boy but Sadie doesn’t accept this. Also Kevin’s friends
are against the friendship with a Protestant girl. Because it is not safe to
meet on the street they meet each other very often at Mr. Blake’s house.
Mr. Blake is a Protestant man, who helps the two children to keep their
friendship. But because of this he is killed one day by a petrol bomb. Because
of that and because Kevin is beaten up by some boys one day, Sadie is very
afraid and doesn’t want to see Kevin again. Because Kevin’s life is
not save anymore in Belfast and he has also lost his job he decides to leave
Northern Ireland and to go to London. Sadie decides to go with him and start a
new life in England.
Lies of silence
Author: Brian Moore
Date: 1990
Vintage
Michael Dixon is a hotel-manager in Northern Ireland. He is married to
Moira but has an affair with Andrea Baxter. He decides to tell Moira that he
wants to leave her and wants to go to England. But at night some people of the
IRA break into their house. Michael is forced to drive his car into the car park
of his hotel. He is told that there is a bomb hidden in it. If he doesn’t
do what they want, Moira will get killed, but if he does so hundreds of people
will get killed in the hotel. So he drives the car into the car-park but then
phones the police. The police come and all people get out of the hotel in time.
Also Moira hasn’t been killed by the IRA.
After this Michael decides to go to England with Andrea. In England the
police phone Michael and ask him to identify one of the boys, who could have
been involved in the IRA-attacks. He agrees but the same evening when he gets
home from work he is killed by three men .
In the name of the father
Gerry Conlon is a Catholic and lives in Northern Ireland. There he fights
on the streets against the British army. But one day he decides to go to
England. There he lives together with young people whose motto are drugs and
love.
One day there is a bomb-attack on an English pub. The police blame Gerry
and his friends of having placed the bomb. But they are innocent. At the
police-station they beat him up and threaten him to kill his father until he
admits that he has set the bomb. So he and his father and also his friends in
England and some of his family-members are arrested. But after fifteen years
there is a new trial. Gerry’s father has already died in jail. The case
has been dismissed and all people, who they once have arrested are innocent.
They have spent fifteen years in jail for something they haven’t
done
Michael Collins
Director: Neil Jordan
BBC FILM 1996
This film is about the life of Michael Collins. Michael Collins fights
together with his friend Harry against the British army and wants Ireland to
become independent. Later he becomes the leader of the IRA and organises many
brutal attacks and killings. Harry becomes President of the Irish Republic and
wants to fight against the English Empire without weapons. One day Michael
Collins goes to peace-talks to England. There he accepts Ireland to become an
Irish Free State. But Harry wants a Republic Ireland and so Michael and Harry
start to fight against each other in the Civil War. Michael Collins is killed at
the age of 31.
Conflict in Ireland
From origins to peace agreement
Author: Tony McAleavy
Date: 1999
Collins Educational
This book is a non-fiction book which informs about the Conflict in
Ireland. It starts with the Invaders and settlers 100BC-1500AD and ends with the
conflict of today. It also tells us something about the causes of the
conflict.
READINGLIST / Spitzer Melanie
Conflict in Ireland
- Special
Topic
Conflict in
Ireland
From origins to peace agreement
Author: Tony McAleavy
Date of publication: 1999
Collins Educational
Books
The twelfth day of July (Kevin and
Sadie)
Author: Joan Lingard
Date of publication: 1970
Penguin Books
Across the barricades (Kevin and
Sadie)
Author: Joan Lingard
Date of publication: 1972
Penguin Books
Lies of silence
Author: Brian Moore
Date of publication: 1990
Vintage
Films
Michael Collins
In the Name of the Father
2. Extra reading
The fat girl
Goggle eyes
The Wave
Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde
The Cement Garden
Catherine
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